Lawrence's third novel, published in 1913, Sons and Lovers, has been consistently viewed as belonging to the psychoanalytical realm of introspection, fixation and obsession. However, this is increasingly seen as a misperception of the breadth and depth of Lawrence's intent and vision. Influenced by many social, religious and economic currents and cross-currents, Lawrence addressed in all of his novels, and many poems, the most critical questions of his time. His deft command of language enabled him, in the eyes of both his own countrymen and many distinguished literati abroad, to address with impact and vigor the social forces which dominated the society of his times. The staid social conventions of his era were illuminated in most of his novels, but particularly in Sons and Lovers where the issues of rigid class structure and imposition of strict traditions were addressed and confronted. Crossing class lines and reaping the retribution which such an action entailed in Lawrence's day is one of the thematic threads woven into the fabric of this novel, lending it depth and "high seriousness." The novel's durability, over time, is testimony enough to the universality of the social mobility theme.
Surely, volumes have been written about the principal theme of this novel, consisting of a young man's almost pathological attachment to his mother which, in turn, affects his own relationship with women, culminating in his alienation, despair and defeat. Yet, when portraying, in the modernist-realist literary fashion, this heart-rending scenario -- reminiscent at times of Proust and Gide -- Lawrence breaks new ground and reveals fresh insights related to British social aspirations circa 1900. Indeed, social and monetary aspirations and the quest for upward mobility seemed to be very much on the minds of Lawrence and his fictional characters, much as these priorities dominate thinking in contemporary America. The "American Dream" still forms the backbone of our society, precisely because it enables the common man to rise above his or her station in life. In Britain, then and now, this is clearly less possible, as Lawrence points out so eloquently in Sons and Lovers. The defeat and subjugation of his protagonist, Paul, is indication enough of the consequences of too brash an attempt to succeed "beyond one's station." Success could be enjoyed in the England of Queen Victoria, and even upward mobility was possible, but mistakes could not be made along the way. Paul committed several blunders, preventing him from rising to the heights which the reader feels inwardly he should have attained.
The focus of this paper, therefore, will explore the issues of class-consciousness in early twentieth century British Society as reflected specifically in Sons and Lovers. In the characters of Gertrude, Walter, Paul, Miriam, Clara and Baxter, Lawrence reveals compelling glimpses of social and class structure prevalent in turn-of-the-century Britain. The aspirations of Paul, the protagonist, are molded by those around him in ways which typify the Anglo-Saxon Protestant ethos of this tradition-bound society.
It would seem fair to state that, toward the end of the Victorian era, even working-class mothers aimed at a higher standard of culture, achievement and social standing than that into which they were born. Mothers, like Gertrude, held their sons close to them, creating virtual images of themselves in their sons, saturating them with those values they themselves cherished, including the notion of upward mobility from humble origins. The expectations of mother's in Lawrence's day were tempered with a sense of realism, but secretly harbored a desire for the success and happiness of all their offspring. But men were trapped in late Victorian society, frequently by their mothers who unwittingly failed to "let go", sometimes by societal constraints and, in spite of educational reform, were constantly struggling to improve their lot, yet generally failed to do so.
Under these circumstances, Paul was not particularly atypical of his society; nonetheless, his longings for a simple abode where he could read and write were, in the larger sense, as unusual as they were modest. Many men strived for more; Paul, however, was unduly constrained by his mother's overriding dominance, most critics agree. Her influence was ambivalent. On the one hand, she propelled him forward, still clinging to him as a counter-weight; on the other hand, she did not overtly disapprove of his early desire to earn a modest salary locally and occupy simple living quarters. This ambivalence, mirrored in other relationships throughout the novel, seems to pervade Lawrencean thinking and, defined in terms of social stratification, sets up a predominant dialectic throughout the work, leading to a combination of aspiration, passion, constraint and self-destruction. This progression is almost roller-coaster like, as the protagonist hurtles toward a destiny the reader begins to glimpse, but is unable to stop. The "inevitability" of Paul's dialectical make-up almost seems to flow naturally into the novel, because the attentive reader readily perceives the introspective musings and the idle speculations which typify Paul's thinking.
Critics, such as Slade, have identified this polarized dialectic, or "balance", as representing a well-known Lawrencean doctrine, found in other works. It consists of a drive, particularly in Paul, toward "desire-negation" and "eros-nihilism". Paul wishes to lose himself in wanton pleasure, at times, but virtually wallows in negative thinking and fatalistic ideation at other times.
The same impulses of an emotional or psychological nature which characterize Paul personally, also surface in his social aspirations, revealing his working-class boyhood dominated by a slovenly and authoritarian father, and his mother's hopes and dreams based in affection for Arthur, his brother, and ultimately for himself. The somewhat dichotomous dialectical elements discernable in Paul's character toward growth, yet destruction, and toward eroticism, yet nihilism, cross the barrier from the purely psychological to the socio-economic as the novel unfolds. It is this delicate balancing act, however, performed adroitly by Lawrence which lends a universal quality to Paul who embodies both the class-consciousness issue and the psychological distress of a seemingly victimized anti-hero.
In Paul Morel, the reader perceives a young man smothered by what, at first glance, passes as maternal love, but also a character springing from the working-class environment of Bestwood. Sons and Lovers, it is crucial to note, surpasses the narrow confines of a political or social diatribe, focused only on issues of class-consciousness, because Paul, his mother and Clara -- the second amorous partner -- transcend, in purpose and scope, the mere mold of individuals trying to escape their blue-collar environments. Paul and his mother, in particular, seek to rise above the cacophony of life in the lower-class milieu of Bestwood, by moving toward "ideas and abstractions" in their relationship. Such a move is indicative of a psycho-social rise to the somewhat loftier ideals of the middle-class.
The notion of destiny which seems to permeate this novel also significantly impacts the aspirations and yearnings of principal characters. Lawrence picks up on a pre-twentieth century theme, that of destiny, and builds it toward a subtle, but dramatic crescendo. The barriers placed in Paul's way form much of the inner core of this novel.
By overcoming obstacles, such as near-death at age 17, Paul approaches ever closer his destiny, that of moving into the world of ideas, concepts and abstractions. He seems to leap at anything which crosses his path, almost a reflection of Lawrence himself who leapt at the chance to take refuge in Germany to complete his final draft of Sons and Lovers, because it was expedient to do so. While Paul ultimately festered, however, in his own emotional stew, Lawrence, in real life, went on to traverse the planet -- even paying a visit to New Mexico in 1922-23 to study Indian Lore in Taos. Reaching out to the world beyond their humble origins was a distinct option and a spell-binding reality for both Paul and Lawrence. Destiny propelled Paul, as he shrugged off Bestwood and moved toward his relationship with Miriam -- doomed ultimately -- but nonetheless an indication of ambition and aspiration. Miriam sought such an upward direction, too, although she was constrained by a stern Protestant ethic.
As Paul's relationship with Miriam deteriorated, he opted for a reversal of his prior goals of class-improvement, and latched on to an older woman, Clara, perhaps a mother-substitute, of purely proletarian origins. Examining this relapse into Paul's troubled childhood days, reminiscent, as well, of Clara's own upbringing, the analyst can surmise that Paul's initial intent to rise in society was foiled at this stage of the novel. Nonetheless, as Lawrence develops his plot -- narrating the inner feelings of his characters as he does so -- the reader perceives a sense of "elevation" and "resolution" when Paul reunites Clara with her husband, Baxter, and locates employment for him. Paul has achieved a triumph of sorts over the working-class by uniting this couple and stabilizing their lives. This alone, in spite of his self-pity and sense of defeat expressed in the novel's final chapter, would seem to indicate partial success, if only it had not been drowned in nihilistic thinking and self-destructive reverie.
Lawrence, in making of Paul the provider of another couple's happiness, expresses guarded optimism about the social structure of England, and of capitalist society in general. Lawrence certainly does not seem to be embracing pure Marxist thought because he assigns a "role of superiority" to Paul in arranging the employment of lower-class individuals, but he raises the whole question of the redistribution of influence and money in British society by doing so.
It must be recalled that Marxism, although fairly embryonic, was in vogue West of the Urals and had begun in the 1920s and 1930s to interest large segments of Western European and North American populations, sometimes proletarian, sometimes Christian, who felt that some of the values espoused in the egalitarian and collectivist theories of Marx and Engels might be appropriate for England. Lawrence does not espouse acceptance of these principles; he merely reflects the ideological tug-of-war which affected human lives, including those of Paul, Miriam and Laura, during this period.
In reviewing the flow of Lawrence's thought and intent in Sons and Lovers, the student must ponder the stark contrast between the author's class-oriented descriptions, presented in the style of modern realism, such as those at the novel's beginning which portray Bestwood, and the deeply insightful nuances of Paul's character in relation to those around him. The class-centered features of the realistic description blend expertly with the thoughts of Lawrence's protagonist, and the resultant "combination" provides a more oblique and thorough perspective into Paul's development than mere narration. It is in these "combined" passages that the reader discovers the priorities which drive, or fail to drive, Paul toward achievement or abandonment of his aspirations.
In Chapter 10, by way of illustration of the Lawrencean "combined" approach, the reader observes Gertrude as she ponders the death of her eldest son and is fitting Paul in the deceased son's clothing for a dinner engagement. The reader, through narration, enters the mind of Gertrude (one element of the combination) as she contemplates her young son, Paul, in his brother's clothes:
"His face was rough, but warm looking and rather pleasing.
He did not look particularly a gentleman,
but she thought he looked quite a man."
A brief dialogue (second element of the combination) ensues between mother and son which also illuminates certain aspects of the class-conscious thinking expressed in the mother's thoughts...not a gentleman, but a man. Gertrude realized that Paul had not yet achieved the social status of the upper middle-class gentry of her era; however, her aspirations are expressed in this illustrative "combined" passage -- introspective "psycho-narration" and class-conscious dialogue -- as she contrasts his rough look with his warmth, and his lack of gentlemanly qualities with his manliness.
Once again, the dialectic of ambivalence becomes apparent, highlighting class issues, but also focusing on Paul's deterioration. Can it be said that Paul is oppressed by his society's social conventions and that this is the cause of his psychological decline? Surely, no individual is an isolated entity, and Paul was buffeted by influences in Bestwood, as he was later in life. Lawrence himself was also subjected to a variety of influences during the period of struggle perceding his success as an author.
But there are internal conflicts within Paul as well, which preclude the possibility that he was influenced solely by his environment. His mother, Gertrude, as Slade and other critics will attest, played a decisive role in Paul's inner psycho-dynamic development. Miriam and Laura also contributed to his instability in some ways, tearing him asunder emotionally at various points in the novel. He achieves a semblance of "resolution", as psychologists might say, but remains on shaky ground.
Indeed, there is a distinct relationship between Paul's ego, defined largely by the women around him, and his social mobility, not to mention his level of awareness of class issues. As he abandons his women, or they him, he loses his willingness to climb socially, and festers in self-abnegation and pity.
It is this sympathetic description of human misery that leads us to understand that Lawrence appears to be distinctly "anti-snob" in places throughout Sons and Lovers. The author is not afraid to portray man's true feelings, dipping openly beneath the surface snobbery which infected many of the aristocratic and bourgeois classes of his time. He seems to embrace the values of the lower-class and frequently, almost in intellectual bohemian terms, derides the values of the upper-crust. There is no doubt in this novel that Lawrence remains aware of the gaps between classes. Keeping in mind key statements of Gertrude, for example, or Paul's relationship with Clara and Baxter, it can be readily appreciated that he goes to some length to highlight class-feeling and distinctions.
There seems to be on-going dialogue among critics as to the degree of radicalism which Lawrence demonstrates in this and other novels, but his expressed views can be construed certainly as "strong" on this issue.(1955, p. 86) Perhaps Paul was not the ideal individual, or vehicle, for the expression of Lawrence's position on class dichotomies in early 20th Century Britain. Could the character of Paul have been altered to more profitably expand on Lawrence's thoughts? Young men in the throes of love, Oedipal fixations and an entire panoply of emotions may not express themselves in "ideological terms" as effectively or as convincingly as an author may desire. And, yet, Paul's complex character may have proven adequate for Lawrence's purposes. Paul was troubled emotionally, but class-issues, aspirations and hopes were very much a part of this young protagonist's conscious thoughts and on-going angst. He, and those with whom he interacted, were obsessed with material possessions, but also strived to improve their lot from a broader perspective. In fact, Paul's first lover, Miriam, left him essentially because she perceived that he wasn't likely to move forward in society to the degree she would have preferred. Paul was torn, dialectically, between, on the one hand, knowing that his true tastes and longings were originally, or at least had become, aesthetic and, on the other hand, realizing, as did his mother and Miriam, that there were practical aspects to life, as well. Success in coping with this dialectic was defined, in his eyes, by achieving "congruence" or balance. Yet, he was never able to arrive at this point. In the style of Dreiser's An American Tragedy, also predicated on psycho-social issues, Lawrence, in Sons and Lovers, has crafted a tale worthy of the reputation he earned in his other major works. He has portrayed the abjection and misery of a man, torn among three women, in a severely class-biased society, and has elevated this "common tragedy", because it happens so frequently even today, to the level of "grand tragedy", in the classic sense.
There is every reason to believe that the major influences which shaped Lawrence's thinking, such as a familiarity with classical Greek and Roman authors, are reflected in Sons and Lovers. The work is well short of being "founded" on the doctrines of Antiquity, of course, but there are some classic elements interwoven in the plot line, and in sub-thematic elements of the novel, which enrich its psychological appeal, as well as its social impact. Coupled with the surface-interplay among characters, the Late Victorian setting, the major social questions addressed and the underlying aspirations of Paul and his lovers, the sheer drama of Paul's degradation and drifting in the wake of failure make for compelling reading in our era.
Lawrence, in the final analysis, has addressed issues of class-struggle, awareness and ambition in this novel as creatively as he has the psychological aspects of his principal characters' developmental crises. The portrayal of class characteristics, with reference to how these social dynamics influenced human lives, is every much as redeeming a quality in Lawrence's third novel as his insightful delving into the intricacies of the psychological interplay among ill-fated Paul, his family and lovers.
November 1997